A drain cleaner is a chemical-based consumer product that unblocks sewer pipes or helps to prevent the occurrence of clogged drains. The term may also refer to the individual who uses performs the activity with chemical drain cleaners or devices known as plumber's snake. Drain cleaners can be classified in two categories: chemical, or device.

• If a single sink, toilet, or tub or shower drain is clogged the first choice is normally a drain cleaner that can remove soft obstructions such as hair and grease clogs that can accumulate close to interior drain openings. Chemical drain cleaners, plungers, handheld drain augers, air burst drain cleaners, and home remedy drain cleaners are intended for this purpose.
• If more than one plumbing fixture is clogged the first choice is normally a drain cleaner that can remove soft or hard obstructions along the entire length of the drain, from the drain opening through the main sewer drain to the lateral piping outside the building. Electric drain cleaners and sewer jetters are intended for this purpose.

Each type of drain cleaner has advantages, disadvantages, and safety considerations as described below.

Chemical drain cleaners

Chemical drain cleaners can be in solid or liquid form that are readily available through hardware stores, though some (primarily acidic ones) are intended for use by licensed plumbers.

Alkaline drain cleaners are available in either solid or liquid state while the acidic ones are usually in liquid form.

History

The history of drain cleaners necessarily shares a relationship with the evolution of the drain systems themselves, and so there is not an extensive history of cleaners, as municipal plumbing systems were not readily available in middle-class American homes until the early 20th century. Prior to this time, Americans often discarded the dirty water collected in basins after use. Limited piping systems gradually developed with lead materials, but after WWI when the poisonous properties of lead became more well-known, piping was reconstructed with galvanized iron.

Galvanized iron is actually steel covered in a protective layer of zinc, but it was soon discovered that this zinc layer naturally corroded due to exposure to the atmosphere and rainwater, as well as cement, runoff, etc. Once corrosion occurred down to the base metal, plaques and rust would form, leading to sediment build-up that would gradually clog these drains. Thus, the first motivation for drain cleaners came to be.

The struggle against corroding galvanized iron pipes eventually led to a replacement by copper or plastic (PVC) piping by the 1960s. Copper and plastic do not possess that zinc layer that naturally corrodes to expose the base metal to decay. Still, however, natural substances such as hair, grease, or other oils continued to be an issue in drain clogs, and so, the development of more effective chemical drain cleaners became necessary.

Alkaline drain openers

Alkaline drain openers primarily contain sodium hydroxide (lye) and some may contain potassium hydroxide. They may appear in liquid or solid form.

Solid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners are composed of a caustic substance (often sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide), aluminum particles, and 'additives.' These additives often include wetting agents such as alkyl aryl sulfonates, but the exact nature of these additives are not known for commercial drain cleaners, as they are regarded as the trade secrets that make each drain cleaner unique to its brand.

The aluminum granules that are included in the solid caustic drain cleaner is an aluminum oxide that breaks down and re-oxidizes to release hydrogen gas. The components of this reaction are shown below. Because the release of hydrogen gas is overall an exothermic reaction, the extra heat released helps to break down the greases, oils, etc. that form the clog.

1. Breakdown of Aluminum Oxide: Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O ---> 2Na [Al(OH)4]

2. Oxidation of Aluminum metal: 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O ---> 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3H2

The actual breakdown of a clog occurs by reaction with the basic sodium hydroxide (lye). Clogs are often composed of natural substances such as hair, fats, oils, etc. and breakdown occurs via a saponification reaction of a base and triglycerol. Essentially, the hydroxide ions from the basic lye attack the carbonyl carbons of the fat, which eventually kicks off the hydrophobic tails of the triglyceride (tristearin/fat) to isolate glycerol.

Alkaline drain openers can dissolve hair (containing proteins) and fats inside pipes via alkaline hydrolysis of amide and ester respectively:

RCONH₂(amide or proteins)+ OH^âˆ' â†' NH₃ + RCOO^âˆ'

RCO₂R’(ester or fats)+ OH^âˆ' â†' R'OH + RCOO^âˆ'

Because solid lye is hygroscopic, it is crucial that the solid granules of the cleaner are placed directly in proximity to the clog. Otherwise, the lye itself will absorb water and actually create a mass itself, exacerbating the clog issue.

Liquid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners can contain sodium hypochlorite (bleach) and lye (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) in concentrations up to 50 percent. Other corrosive mixtures come as two-part cleaners that are mixed as they are poured in the drain opening. Inside the drain the two solutions react to release a gas, and surfactants trap the gas as dense foam. The intent of this foaming action is to coat the inside of the drain pipe to dislodge more of the substances that form the clog. Because liquid alkaline drain cleaners are essentially a base dissolved in water, this is denser than water and can sink to the source of the clog.

Acidic drain openers

Acid drain cleaners usually contain sulfuric acid at high concentrations. It can dissolve cellulose, proteins like hair, and fats via acid hydrolysis.

According to a manufacturer, potential hazards include violent reaction with water and the production of explosive hydrogen vapors upon contact with most metals; chronic (delayed) and acute (immediate) health hazards if inhaled, ingested, or contacted, including severe eye, flesh and skin burns or even permanent visual loss, inflammation of respiratory membranes, and corrosive burns to all human tissue. It may even be fatal if swallowed. Due to the vigorous reaction between the acid and water, such acidic drain openers should be added slowly into the pipe to be cleaned.

Here are the ways where acidic drain openers hydrolyze proteins and fats via acid hydrolysis, similar to their alkaline versions mentioned above:

RCONH₂(amide or proteins)+ H₂O + (H⁺ or acid) â†' NH₄⁺ + RCOOH

RCO₂R'(ester or fats) + H₂O + acid or dehydrating agent (e.g. conc. sulfuric acid) ⇌ RCO₂H + R'OH

Sulfuric acid at high concentrations in drain openers also dehydrates substances containing carbohydrates, like tissue paper which consists of cellulose:

(C
6H
10O
5)n + acid â†' 6n C + 5n H
2O

Danger and Usage considerations

Advantages of chemical drain cleaners include ready availability of some formulations through retailer stores and potential ease of use for removing soft hair and grease clogs that accumulate close the drain openings.

Disadvantages of chemical drain cleaners include a lack of effectiveness for removing clogs far from the drain opening (for example, clogs that occur in toilets or in the main sewer drain), an inability to remove most solid obstructions, and the safety considerations outlined below.

Danger arises from chemical drain cleaners' potential to injure eyes, lungs, and skin; and damage to clothing and household materials such as wood, paint, aluminum, and fiberglass. Chemical drain cleaners should be used only according to the manufacturer's instructions, as other use may cause injury. Strongly corrosive and acid drain cleaners are among the most hazardous household products available to the public. Chemical drain cleaners can cause strong reactionsâ€"sometimes explosivelyâ€"with other chemicals that may have been used previously, which can result in serious injury to anyone in the vicinity.

Moreover, because the acidic or basic drain cleaners themselves are washed down the drain, this contributes to pollution in the water supply. The heat generation can also soften plastic PVC pipes, and the pressure buildup by gas generation can cause older pipes to burst.

Often times, individuals may unknowingly mix two different types of drain cleaners, which can even lead to deadly results. For example, consider the mixing of an acidic and basic drain cleaner:

•Sulfuric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide (base) ---> sodium sulfate (salt) + water

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH â†' Na2SO4 + 2H2O

The neutralization reaction of the acid and base may seem harmless, but in reality this reaction is extremely exothermic and can cause pipes to violently explode. Consider another example of mixing, this time between an acid drain cleaner and bleach:

•Hydrochloric Acid + bleach ---> water + table salt + chlorine gas

2HCl + NaClO â†' H2O + NaCl + Cl2

This reaction obviously generates chlorine gas, which is commonly known to be poisonous.

Handheld drain augers

Handheld drain augers are typically designed to clean portions of a drain within 8 metres (25 ft) of the drain opening. The cable of a handheld drain auger is driven into a drain by the mechanical force created when the operator rotates a drum that anchors the cable.

Many handheld augers have cables that are thin enough to pass through common sink traps, though some manufacturers do not recommend using handheld drain augers in toilets because of their potential to scratch ceramic surfaces. Instead, a special closet auger (from "water closet") should be used.

Similar to handheld augers, drain rods can be used for clearing blockages in long, straight pipes.

Advantages of handheld drain augers include low relative cost and ready availability through hardware stores. However, drawbacks include a reach that is normally limited to 8 metres (25 ft), and the potential for the twisting cable to scratch the ceramic surfaces of plumbing fixtures. They are also only effective on small-diameter pipes â€" 40â€"50 mm rather than main sewer pipes of 110 mm.

Safety considerations include a requirement to wear protective gloves and eye protection, and to practice good hygiene after coming into contact with drain fluids.

Air burst drain cleaners

Air burst drain cleaners use accelerated carbon dioxide, air or other gas to rupture the clog membrane. Accelerated gas creates a force on standing water that can dislodge clogs that accumulate close to drain openings.

Advantages of air burst drain cleaners include the potential to immediately clear clogs and slow-running drains, in contrast to chemical cleaners that can take more time to work. Air burst cleaners can dislodge obstructions that are further away from drain openings than can a plunger, and in contrast to a drain augers do not risk scratching the ceramic surfaces of sinks, bathtubs and toilets.

Disadvantages of air burst drain cleaners include a limited cleaning range in pipes that do not contain standing water and, in general, ineffectiveness for unclogging blocked main sewer drains.

Safety considerations for air burst drain cleaners include a requirement to wear eye protection and, when using an air burst cleaner that uses compressed gas cartridges, careful handling of unused cartridges.

Home remedy drain cleaners

Home remedy drain cleaners include boiling water poured into drain openings to clear soap and hair clogs; or, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) poured into a drain, followed by vinegar.

Advantages of home remedy drain cleaners include ready availability and environmental safety, though they are limited in effectiveness compared to other drain cleaners.

Safety considerations for home remedy drain cleaners include the requirement to handle ingredients (for example, boiling water) with the appropriate care.

Hydro-mechanical drain cleaners

Hydro-mechanical drain cleans use high-pressure water to break up obstructions and flush these smaller particles down the drain.

Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a  1 ¹â„₂-inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.

Advantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners are their eco-friendliness (most use only tap water), their ability to dislodge and remove clogs like sand or cat litter that 'back-fill when using a conventional snake, and their friendliness to plumbing joints. Unlike air-burst cleaners, hydro-mechanical drain cleaners do not pressurize plumbing joints. On some models of hydro-mechanical drain cleaner both hot and cold water can be used, providing added cleaning power for fat, protein, or other easily melting drain clogs.

Disadvantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners included limited reach into drain plumbing, and the necessity of a water source to act as the motive agent.

Safety considerations for hydro-mechanical drain cleaners include the risk of injury from high-pressure water coming into contact with skin or delicate areas of the body (i.e., eyes, and face).

Electric drain cleaners

Electric drain cleaners, also called plumber's snakes, use the mechanical force of an electric motor to twist a flexible cable or spring in a clockwise direction and drive it into a pipe. Electric drain cleaners are commonly available with cable lengths of up to 40 metres and can go as far as 80 metres.

Advantages of electric drain cleaners include the ability to clean long sections of sewer drain, the ability to remove solid objects such as tree roots and jewelry, and ready availability through hardware stores and tool rental counters. Machines using springs can easily negotiate multiple 90-degree bends while maintaining their effectiveness and without damaging the pipe.

Disadvantages of electric drain cleaners include high relative cost and weight, and the considerable physical effort that may be required to control the cable.

Safety considerations for electric drain cleaners include the requirement to wear work gloves and eye protection, to carefully control the cable during operation to avoid overstressing it, to use appropriate caution when working around rotating machinery, and to use properly grounded electrical outlets.

Sewer jetters

A sewer jetter is composed of a controlled high-pressure water source such as a pressure washer or reciprocating displacement pump, a flexible high-pressure line (called a jetter hose which connects the high-pressure engine to the mini-reel) of up to hundreds of metres (several hundred feet) in length, the Mini-Reel (a hose reel which can be taken a distance from the engine) and a nozzle that uses hydraulic force to pull the line into sewer drains, clean the sides of pipes, and flush out residue. High-pressure sewer jetters can be mounted on trolleys, inside vans or on trailers. The power of a Sewer Jetter ranges from 1000 psi up to 5000 psi. Sewer jetter nozzles come in different sizes and applications; a bullet-type nozzle with a streamlined profile can clear a hole for the larger root cutting nozzle. Root-cutter nozzles are designed to cut roots with a spinning nozzle that shoots a jet stream horizontally inside the pipe. 5000 psi sewer jetters with root-cutting nozzl es can clear a hole through the center of a root-infested sewer line and with its rear-facing jet streams cut the roots and clean the pipe walls, flushing the root debris through the sewer line. The sewer jetter has been labeled as a technological advancement of the plumber's snake (also known as an electric eel) drain clearing method.

Portable sewer jetters and pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are primarily used by service personnel and homeowners to remove soft obstructions throughout the length of a building's sewer drain and to prevent the recurrence of clogs by cleaning the sides of drain pipes and flushing out residue. Pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are generally lower in cost and weight than electric drain cleaners with an equivalent reach, and can present a lower risk of scratching plumbing fixtures.

Truck and trailer-mounted sewer jetters used by municipalities and larger service companies benefit from the high hydraulic horsepower delivered by powerful displacement pumps and so can remove tree roots and other solid obstructions.

Advantages of sewer jetters include the relative ease of penetrating long sewer lines and the ability to remove residue that accumulates along the sides of sewer pipes, thereby reducing the need for subsequent drain cleaning.

Disadvantages of pressure washer sewer jetter attachments and many portable jetters include an inability to extract tree roots and other hard obstructions. Disadvantages of truck- and trailer-mounted sewer jetters include high relative cost and weight, and the requirement for extensive training to comply with manufacturers' safety guidelines.

Safety considerations for sewer jetters include a requirement to wear protective gloves and eye protection, to avoid contact with sewer drain fluids, and to ensure that the jetter nozzle operates only inside the sewer pipe. Furthermore, larger truck- and trailer-mounted units that operate with sufficient power to cut tree roots require extensive training and strict adherence to manufacturers' safety guidelines to avoid serious injury.

Enzymatic drain cleaners

Enzymatic drain cleaners contain bacteria cultures and concentrated enzymes that react with organic residue that builds up on sewer pipes, dissolving the residue to help prevent slow-running drains. Most enzymatic drain cleaners are intended for general maintenance to maintain proper flow and are not intended to clear fully clogged drain pipes.

Advantages of enzymatic drain cleaners include relative safety for use in a wide range of plumbing fixtures, low environmental impact, low cost and ease of use.

Disadvantages of most enzymatic drain cleaners include longer cleaning times compared to most other drain cleaners. Because enzymatic cleaners rely on liquid flowing through the pipe to disperse, they are also generally not intended to open completely clogged drains.

Safety considerations for enzymatic drain cleaners include a requirement to avoid contact with eyes and prolonged contact with skin.

References

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A shop drawing is a drawing or set of drawings produced by the contractor, supplier, manufacturer, subcontractor, or fabricator. Shop drawings are typically required for prefabricated components. Examples of these include: elevators, structural steel, trusses, pre-cast, windows, appliances, cabinets, air handling units, and millwork. Also critical are the installation and coordination shop drawings of the MEP trades such as sheet metal ductwork, piping, plumbing, fire protection, and electrical. Shop drawings are produced by architects and engineers under their contract with the owner. The shop drawing is the manufacturer’s or the contractor’s drawn version of information shown in the construction documents. The shop drawing normally shows more detail than the con struction documents. It is drawn to explain the fabrication and/or installation of the items to the manufacturer’s production crew or contractor's installation crews. The style of the shop drawing is usually very different from that of the architect’s drawing. The shop drawing’s primary emphasis is on the particular product or installation and excludes notation concerning other products and installations, unless integration with the subject product is necessary.

Information required to be included in Shop Drawings

Comparison information for the architect and engineer

The shop drawings should include information for the architect and engineer to compare to the specifications and drawings. The shop drawing should address the appearance, performance, and prescriptive descriptions in the specifications and construction drawings. The shop drawing often is more detailed than the information shown in the construction documents to give the architect and engineer the opportunity to review the fabricator’s version of the product, prior to fabrication. References to the construction documents, drawings, and specifications assist the architect and engineer in their review of the shop drawings. Attachment of manufacturer’s material specifications, “catalog cut sheets,” and other manufacturer’s information may be helpful to accompany these drawings. Because shop drawings facilitate the architect’s and engineer’s approval of the product, they should be as clear and complete as possible.

Notes of changes or alterations from the construction documents

Notes concerning changes or differences from the original documents should be made on the shop drawing for the architect’s and engineer’s approval. Ultimately, they are responsible for changes in these drawings and should have the opportunity to analyze any modifications. A dialogue should occur between the fabricator and the architect and engineer about any areas needing clarification. Successful installations are the result of collaboration between the designer, fabricator, and contractor.

Information needed to fabricate the product

Dimensions, manufacturing conventions, and special fabrication instructions should be included on the shop drawing. It should be clear to fabrication personnel what will be manufactured from the shop drawings alone. The construction documents are rarely used as a reference in fabrication, with the fabricators relying on the shop drawing for all information.

Indication of dimensions needing verification from the jobsite

Most jobsite dimensions, such as the dimensions between two surfaces on the jobsite, need to be verified. A dimension may be shown on the construction drawings, but the actual dimension may vary, from very small to large increments, depending on jobsite conditions. It is extremely important that the fabricated item arrive on the jobsite ready to be installed without field modification. Special care must be taken by the contractor to measure and verify dimensions. In new construction, plan dimensions usually are sufficient for ordering many fabricated items such as structural steel or precast concrete.

In remodeling and renovation work, it is essential that field dimensions be verified prior to fabrication. Some fabricators, such as cabinet and casework suppliers, prefer not to rely on the contractor’s verification and will verify the dimensions with their own personnel.

Placement or installation information

Some fabricators and manufacturers will provide symbols, data, or instructions concerning installation. This can include a list of other materials, such as fasteners or adhesives, appropriate but not included for the product.

Third party review may be required for major building systems. An example of this would be a commercial chiller which would be furnished by the mechanical contractor, but would require electrical connections, plumbing, rigging, insulation and commissioning. Various third parties will need to review the installation information and confirm they are furnishing compatible equipment and proper layout of services. Review of installation information for major equipment should be reviewed with field supervisors including the project superintendent, trade foremen and field engineer. Installation of major equipment will dictate structural clearances and temporary openings.

Samples

Some fabrications will require a sample submittal with the shop drawing, primarily for color and texture selection of finishes.

Computer-aided Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing Design Coordination

Problems with design coordination, such as time consumption and ineffectiveness related to the current 2D paper-based process, are some of the top concerns of a general contractor, since late conflict correction increases the potential for errors in the field. In order to address this issue, there have been an increasing number of Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) firms utilizing building information models (BIM) in their coordination and clash detection processes, which according to practitioners, allows for increased coordination and fewer field problems. Leite et al. compared types of clashes identified in a manual coordination process (overlay of 2D drawings on a light table by pairs of subcontractors) and through automatic clash detection using a Building Information Model (BIM). The automatic clash detection identified several clashes that were missed by the subcontractors, who were performing this task manually. Also, the manual clash detection identified cla shes which could not possibly be found by the automatic clash detection software, since one of the clashing objects (e.g. cable trays) was not modeled in the BIM. This study also included site observations of field detected clashes, some of which were not identified in either manual or automatic processes. Leite noted that the combination of clashes identified in coordination meetings, those automatically detected, as well as those identified in the field enable identification of objects that need to be modeled in order to capture the largest possible number of clashes. This paper was limited to the comparison of types of clashes identified in each of the three methods during a specific project. Although their results cannot be generalized, they still provide insight towards the need to identify what needs to be modeled in a BIM for MEP coordination prior to the start of the coordination process.

Reviews

Because writing comments on eight to ten copies is a tedious process and an inefficient use of the architect and engineer's time, they will frequently specify other methods for distributing comments. Quick review is essential during the approval process. Any method that facilitates this, while providing ample opportunity for comment and complete distribution, should be considered. Although a procedure may be specified in the contract drawings, most architects and engineers are open to suggestions and innovations that speed up the process.

Number of copies

Shop drawings are required, in various forms, depending upon the practice of the architect and engineer. A specific number of copies may be required by the specification. An example distribution of the completed and corrected shop drawings may include the:

• Ownerâ€"file or inspection copy
• Architectâ€"file copy
• Architectâ€"field copy or inspection copy
• Consulting engineerâ€"file copy
• Consulting engineerâ€"inspection copy
• Contractorâ€"file copy
• Contractorâ€"field copy
• Supplierâ€"original copy or one copy

Submittal of one or two copies of the shop drawing

Corrections are made by the architect and engineer, and the shop drawing is corrected by the supplier, then the appropriate number of copies is distributed. This method can be time consuming, as the shop drawing is not approved until the corrections are made on it.

Submittal of a copy that can be reproduced

The architect and engineer make comments on the reproducible, then copies are distributed. This method facilitates the timely approval and distribution of the shop drawing. Review comments usually are obvious on the reproducible copy. When sepia copies are used, the reproduction of the sepia often is not as clear as a normal blue-line print.

Compatible CAD software

When the supplier and designer have compatible CAD software or when universal file formats such as IFC, PDF or DWG are utilized, the review can be made from a CD, email or FTP transfer. Comments can be made by the designer in a bold font or changes can be boxed for emphasis.

Popular CAD platforms used for generating shop drawings are Advance Steel, AutoCAD, CATIA, Creo Elements/Pro, Inventor, Solidworks and Tekla Structures.

Shop drawings in concrete reinforcing

Concrete reinforcing is one of the many items requiring specialized shop drawings for the fabrication of the material. Concrete reinforcing is custom-fabricated from 60-foot-long reinforcing bars. The reinforcing bars are cut to length and bent to specific configurations. The shop drawing and the accompanying “cut sheet” lists the quantity, sizes, lengths, and shapes of the reinforcing bar. This information is provided for review by the structural engineer to ensure that sufficient reinforcing is being supplied; fabrication of the bar by the supplier’s shop; an inventory list for the contractor, upon delivery the typical project has thousands of pieces of reinforcing steel that need to be organized for storage and installation; and placement by the ironworker. The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI) has developed standard symbols, graphics, and formats for shop drawings and cut sheets that generally are used by reinforcing steel fabricators. Each fabricator, has part icular style for shop drawings and cut sheets, depending on the draftspeople and Computer-aided design systems. Examples of software used are Advance Concrete, AutoCAD, MicroStation, ProConcrete and Tekla Structures.

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Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids. Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.

In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation. Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, but their work can include some plumbing.

History

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal, for larger numbers of people. Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B.C. The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft.

Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnatedâ€"or regressedâ€"for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.

Systems

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:

• potable cold and hot tap water supply
• plumbing drainage venting
• sewage systems and septic systems with or without hot water heat recycling and graywater recovery and treatment systems
• Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage
• fuel gas piping
• hydronics, i.e. heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in district heating systems, like for example the New York City steam system.

Water pipes

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

History

For many centuries, lead was the favoured material for water pipes, because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. (Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.) This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century, and remain in many households. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead, in order to eliminate lead hazards.

Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water. This was an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink, for example as a preservative in wine. Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs, which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through. The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. They were often used in Montreal and Boston in the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the USA during the 20th century. These pipes, used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes, were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.

Difference between pipes and tubes

The difference between pipes and tubes is simply in the way it is sized. PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe for instance, are measured in IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.

Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered "joints" or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid "joints" or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, that is whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter). Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durab ility and higher pressure tolerances.

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size. 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.

Materials

Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil") out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Steel

Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from ³â„₈ inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping larger than ³â„₄ inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper

Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.

Plastic

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

• PVC/CPVC â€" rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands for polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a common replacement for metal piping. PVC should be used only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.
• PP â€" The material is used primarily in housewares, food packaging, and clinical equipment, but since the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, being unsuitable for the use of glues, solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in green building projects.
• PBT â€" flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures of this system. However, PB and PBT tubing has since returned to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed locations" such as risers.
• PEX â€" cross-linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and crimped steel or copper rings.
• Polytanks â€" plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground water tanks, above ground water tanks, are usually made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.
• Aqua â€" known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX, and connected with modified brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number of these fittings were recalled.

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper, brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States, although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s, and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.

Gallery

Components

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Sealants

Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.

Equipment and tools

Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make the job easier.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.

Problems

Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility". Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera, however "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently; Legionella pneumophila discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with. These opportunistic pathogens can grow for example in faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects t hem from disinfection.

Regulation

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned; there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC). WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.

In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:

• ASME A112.6.3 â€" Floor and Trench Drains
• ASME A112.6.4 â€" Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
• ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 â€" Plumbing Supply Fittings
• ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 â€" Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel Plumbing Fixtures
• ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 â€" Ceramic Plumbing Fixtures

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The Old Idaho Penitentiary State Historic Site was a functional prison from 1872 to 1973 in the western United States. The first building, also known as the Territorial Prison, was constructed in the Territory of Idaho in 1870. The territory was less than ten years old when the prison was built east of Boise. From its beginnings as a single cell house, the penitentiary grew to a complex of several distinctive buildings surrounded by a 17-foot-high (5.2 m) sandstone wall. The stone was quarried from the nearby ridges by the resident convicts, who also assisted in later constructions.

The Old Idaho Penitentiary is operated by the Idaho State Historical Society.

Prison history

Over its 101 years of operation, the penitentiary received more than 13,000 inmates, with a maximum population of a little over 600. Two hundred and fifteen of the inmates were women. Two famous inmates were Harry Orchard and Lyda Southard. Orchard assassinated former Governor Frank Steunenberg in 1905 and Southard was known as Idaho's Lady Bluebeard for killing several of her husbands to collect upon their life insurance. Two serious riots occurred in 1971 and 1973 over living conditions in the prison. The 416 resident inmates were moved to the newly built Idaho State Correctional Institution south of Boise and the Old Idaho Penitentiary was closed on December 3, 1973.

In 1992, the Idaho State Historical Society recorded oral history interviews with fifteen former prison guards. These tapes and transcripts cover prison operations and remembrances from the 1950s to the closing of the prison. The collection is open for research at the society.

Prison Buildings

The Territorial Prison was completed in 1872 and received its first 11 inmates from the Boise County Jail. This building was converted into a Chapel in the 1930s and was destroyed by fire in the 1973 riot.

The New Cell House (1889â€"1890) consisted of three tiers of 42 steel cells. The third tier closest to the Rose Garden served as "Death Row."

The area now known as the Rose Garden (as this it what it is now) was once used to execute prisoners by hanging. Of the 10 executions in the Old State Penitentiary, six occurred here.

The Administration Building (1893â€"1894) housed the warden's office, armory, visitation room, control room and the turn key area.

The False Front Buildings (1894â€"1895) held the commissary, trusty dorm, barber shop (1902-1960s) and hospital (originally the blacksmith shop, but was remodeled in 1912 and remained the prison hospital until the 1960s).

The Dining Hall (1898) was designed by George Hamilton (an inmate at the time) and burned down in the 1973 riot.

Cell House 2 (1899), also known as the "North Wing," contained two-man cells. A "honey bucket" was placed in each cell to serve as a toilet. Inmates burned the building in the 1973 riot.

Cell House 3 (1899) was built the same as Cell House 2. It was eventually condemned for habitation, but in 1921 was converted into a shoe factory. In 1928, this building was remodeled for inmate occupancy and became the first cell house with indoor plumbing.

The Women's Ward (1905â€"1906) was built out of necessity. Prior to its completion women did not have separate quarters. Male inmates built a wall around the old wardens home to serve as a separate facility for women. This building had seven two-person cells, a central day room, kitchen and bathroom facilities. This building held the infamous Lyda Southard (Lady Bluebeard).

Built by inmates, the Multipurpose Building (1923) served as a shirt factory, shoe shop, bakery, license plate shop, laundry, hobby room, and loafing room and housed the communal showers.

Solitary confinement consisted of two sections. The first, built in the early 1920s, was the Cooler. Although built for solitary confinement, each cell contained 4-6 men. The second section, known as Siberia, was built in 1926 and housed 12 3'x8' cells with one inmate per cell.

Cell House 4 (1952) was the largest and most modern cell house at the penitentiary. Some inmates painted their cells and left drawings on the walls that can be seen today.

Cell House 5 (1954) was Maximum Security where the most unruly and violent offenders stayed. This building also served as a permanent place of solitary confinement. It includes a built-in gallows and "Death Row."

Although not a building, there is also an outdoor Recreational Area where inmates boxed and played baseball, basketball, handball, tennis, horseshoes and football. The baseball, and later softball, team was named "The Outlaws" and frequently played teams from across Treasure Valley.

Museum and Historical Society

The site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 for its significance as a Territorial Prison. The site currently contains museums, an arboretum and is a facility managed by the Idaho State Historical Society.

In late 1999, J.C. Earl donated his personal collection of historic arms and military memorabilia to the state of Idaho. These items were placed on exhibition as the J.C. Earl Exhibit at the Old Idaho Penitentiary. They range from the Bronze Age to those used today for sport, law enforcement, and military purposes. The Luristan Bronze collection dates to about 1000-650 BC.

References

External links

• Old Idaho Penitentiary Idaho State Historical Society
• Inmates Catalog (1864-1975) Idaho State Historical Society
• A Place of Confinement: Constructing the Old Idaho State Penitentiary 1872-1973 Idaho State Historical Society
• Old Boise Penitentiary (Photo Essay) Idaho for 91 Days
• Old Idaho Penitentiary on LocalWiki

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Henri Julien Félix Rousseau (French: [É'̃ʁi Ê'yljɛ̃ feliks ʁuso]; May 21, 1844 â€" September 2, 1910) was a French post-impressionist painter in the Naïve or Primitive manner. He was also known as Le Douanier (the customs officer), a humorous description of his occupation as a toll collector. Ridiculed during his lifetime by critics, he came to be recognized as a self-taught genius whose works are of high artistic quality. Rousseau's work exerted an extensive influence on several generations of avant-garde artists.

Background

Rousseau was born in Laval, France, in 1844 into the family of a plumber; he was forced to work there as a small boy. He attended Laval High School as a day student, and then as a boarder after his father became a debtor and his parents had to leave the town upon the seizure of their house. Though mediocre in some of his high school subjects, Rousseau won prizes for drawing and music. After high school, he worked for a lawyer and studied law, but "attempted a small perjury and sought refuge in the army." He served four years, starting in 1863. With his father's death, Rousseau moved to Paris in 1868 to support his widowed mother as a government employee. In 1868, he married Clémence Boitard, his landlord's 15-year-old daughter, with whom he had six children (only one survived). In 1871, he was appointed as a collector of the octroi of Paris, collecting taxes on goods entering Paris. His wife died in 1888 and he married Josephine Noury in 1898. He started painting seriously in his early forties; by age 49, he retired from his job to work on his art full-time.

Rousseau claimed he had "no teacher other than nature", although he admitted he had received "some advice" from two established Academic painters, Félix Auguste Clément and Jean-Léon Gérôme. Essentially, he was self-taught and is considered to be a naïve or primitive painter.

Paintings

His best-known paintings depict jungle scenes, even though he never left France or saw a jungle. Stories spread by admirers that his army service included the French expeditionary force to Mexico are unfounded. His inspiration came from illustrations in children's books and the botanical gardens in Paris, as well as tableaux of taxidermy wild animals. He had also met soldiers during his term of service who had survived the French expedition to Mexico, and he listened to their stories of the subtropical country they had encountered. To the critic Arsène Alexandre, he described his frequent visits to the Jardin des Plantes: "When I go into the glass houses and I see the strange plants of exotic lands, it seems to me that I enter into a dream."

Along with his exotic scenes there was a concurrent output of smaller topographical images of the city and its suburbs.

He claimed to have invented a new genre of portrait landscape, which he achieved by starting a painting with a specific view, such as a favourite part of the city, and then depicting a person in the foreground.

Criticism and recognition

Rousseau's flat, seemingly childish style was disparaged by many critics; people often were shocked by his work or ridiculed it. His ingenuousness was extreme, and he always aspired, in vain, to conventional acceptance. Many observers commented that he painted like a child, but the work shows sophistication with his particular technique.

From 1886, he exhibited regularly in the Salon des Indépendants, and, although his work was not placed prominently, it drew an increasing following over the years. Tiger in a Tropical Storm (Surprised!) was exhibited in 1891, and Rousseau received his first serious review when the young artist Félix Vallotton wrote: "His tiger surprising its prey ought not to be missed; it's the alpha and omega of painting." Yet it was more than a decade before Rousseau returned to depicting his vision of jungles.

In 1893, Rousseau moved to a studio in Montparnasse where he lived and worked until his death in 1910. In 1897, he produced one of his most famous paintings, La Bohémienne endormie (The Sleeping Gypsy).

In 1905, Rousseau's large jungle scene The Hungry Lion Throws Itself on the Antelope was exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants near works by younger leading avant-garde artists such as Henri Matisse, in what is now seen as the first showing of The Fauves. Rousseau's painting may even have influenced the naming of the Fauves.

In 1907, he was commissioned by artist Robert Delaunay's mother, Berthe, Comtesse de Delaunay, to paint The Snake Charmer.

Le Banquet Rousseau

When Pablo Picasso happened upon a painting by Rousseau being sold on the street as a canvas to be painted over, the younger artist instantly recognised Rousseau's genius and went to meet him. In 1908, Picasso held a half serious, half burlesque banquet in his studio at Le Bateau-Lavoir in Rousseau's honour. Le Banquet Rousseau, "one of the most notable social events of the twentieth century," wrote American poet and literary critic John Malcolm Brinnin, "was neither an orgiastic occasion nor even an opulent one. Its subsequent fame grew from the fact that it was a colorful happening within a revolutionary art movement at a point of that movement's earliest success, and from the fact that it was attended by individuals whose separate influences radiated like spokes of creative light across the art world for generations."

Guests at the banquet Rousseau included: Guillaume Apollinaire, Jean Metzinger, Juan Gris, Max Jacob, Marie Laurencin, André Salmon, Maurice Raynal, Daniel-Henri Kahnweiler, Leo Stein, and Gertrude Stein.

Maurice Raynal, in Les Soires de Paris, January 15, 1914, p. 69, wrote about "Le Banquet Rousseau". Years later the French writer André Salmon recalled the setting of the illustrious banquet:

"Here the nights of the Blue Period passed... here the days of the Rose Period flowered... here the Demoiselles d'Avignon halted in their dance to re-group themselves in accordance with the golden number and the secret of the fourth dimension... here fraternized the poets elevated by serious criticism into the School of the Rue Ravignan... here in these shadowy corridors lived the true worshippers of fire ... here one evening in the year 1908 unrolled the pageantry of the first and last banquet offered by his admirers to the painter Henri Rousseau called the Douanier."

Retirement

After Rousseau's retirement in 1893, he supplemented his small pension with part-time jobs and work such as playing a violin in the streets. He also worked briefly at Le petit journal, where he produced a number of its covers.

Rousseau exhibited his final painting, The Dream, in March 1910, at the Salon des Independants and in the same month suffered a phlegmon in his leg which he ignored. In August he was admitted to the Necker Hospital in Paris where his son had died and was found to have gangrene in his leg. After an operation, he died from a blood clot on September 2, 1910. At his funeral, seven friends stood at his grave: the painters Paul Signac and Manuel Ortiz de Zárate, the artist couple Robert Delaunay and Sonia Terk, the sculptor Brâncuși, Rousseau's landlord Armand Queval, and Guillaume Apollinaire who wrote the epitaph Brâncuși put on the tombstone:

Legacy

Rousseau's work exerted an extensive influence on several generations of avant-garde artists, including Pablo Picasso, Jean Hugo, Fernand Léger Jean Metzinger, Max Beckmann, and the Surrealists. According to Roberta Smith, an art critic writing in The New York Times, "Beckmann’s amazing self-portraits, for example, descend from the brusque, concentrated forms of Rousseau’s portrait of the writer Pierre Loti."

In 1911, a retrospective exhibition of Rousseau's works was shown at the Salon des Indépendants. His paintings were also shown at the first Blaue Reiter exhibition.

Critics have noted the influence of Rousseau on Wallace Stevens's poetry. See, for instance, Stevens's Floral Decorations for Bananas in the collection Harmonium.

The American poet Sylvia Plath was a great admirer of Rousseau, referencing his art, as well as drawing inspiration from his works in her poetry. The poem, Yadwigha, on a Red Couch, Among Lilies (1958), is based upon his painting, The Dream, whilst the poem Snakecharmer (1957) is based upon his painting The Snake Charmer.

The song, The Jungle Line, by Joni Mitchell, is based upon a Rousseau painting.

Underground comic artist Bill Griffith drew a four-page autobiographical sketch of Rousseau, A Couch in the Sun, which was included in issue #2 of the Arcade anthology.

The visual style of Michel Ocelot's 1998 animation film, Kirikou and the Sorceress, is partly inspired by Rousseau, particularly the depiction of the jungle vegetation.

A Rousseau painting was used as an inspiration for the 2005 animated film Madagascar.

Exhibitions

Two major museum exhibitions of his work were held in 1984â€"85 (in Paris, at the Grand Palais; and in New York, at the Museum of Modern Art) and in 2001 (Tübingen, Germany). "These efforts countered the persona of the humble, oblivious naïf by detailing his assured single-mindedness and tracked the extensive influence his work exerted on several generations of vanguard artists," critic Roberta Smith wrote in a review of a later exhibition.

A major exhibition of his work, "Henri Rousseau: Jungles in Paris," was shown at the Tate Modern from November 2005 for four months, organised by the Tate and the Musée d’Orsay, where the show also appeared. The exhibition, encompassing 49 of his paintings, was on display at the National Gallery of Art in Washington from July 16â€"October 15, 2006.

A major collection of Rousseau's work was shown at the Grand Palais from March 15 to June 19, 2006.

Paintings

Footnotes

References

Much of the information in this article was taken from Henri Rousseau Jungles in Paris, The Tate Gallery, pamphlet accompanying the 2005 exhibition.

Further reading

• The Banquet Years, by Roger Shattuck (includes an extensive Rousseau essay)
• Henri Rousseau, 1979, Dora Vallier (general illustrated essay)
• Henri Rousseau, 1984, The Museum of Modern Art New York (essays by Roger Shattuck, Henri Béhar, Michel Hoog, Carolyn Lanchner, and William Rubin; includes excellent color plates and analysis)

External links

• Henrirousseau.org, 118 works by Henri Rousseau
• Henri Rousseau: Jungles in Paris, at the National Gallery of Art
• Rousseau text written for young readers Brief introduction to the artist's life and art. Entry contains links to two large reproductions of Rousseau paintings in the National Gallery of Art, a 4th grade lesson relating Rousseau's paintings to ecology, and hands-on activities suitable for classroom or home study.
• Ten Dreams Galleries
• The Sleeping Gypsy in the MoMA Online Collection

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The Katy Independent School District is a public school district based in Katy, Texas, United States with an enrollment of over 70,000 students. As of August 2009, the district was rated as "Recognized" by the Texas Education Agency.

The district serves 181 square miles (469 km²) in parts of Harris County, Fort Bend County and Waller County. Most of the district lies within the boundaries of the City of Houston, the City of Katy or their municipalities' extraterritorial jurisdiction (ETJ). Unincorporated areas in Katy ISD include Barker, Cinco Ranch, and Cimarron.

All residential areas of the district are assigned to an elementary school, a junior high school, and a high school by subdivision.

History

1898: The Katy Common School District (CSD) was formed to serve the town and surrounding communities. A high school and elementary school were established in a home at Avenue A and Sixth Street in Katy.

1899: The city constructed a wooden one-room school house at the site of the current Katy Elementary School's playground; the school served all grade levels.

1900: The Galveston hurricane damaged the building, but repairs were made, and classes continued at the home of W.H. Featherston. The first class graduated from Katy High School (10th grade).

1909: A permanent brick building was constructed adjacent and south of the wooden building, for the secondary grade levels.

1918: The Katy Independent School District was established by voters, by divorcement election from the City of Katy, and incorporated the common school districts in Dishman, Schlipf, Sills, and a school for African-Americans.

1927: Improvements to the 1909 building were competed, including indoor plumbing and heat. The wooden school was dismantled and sold, and a classroom addition was constructed for the elementary grades at the new site, including a combination auditorium and cafeteria.

1931: The size of Katy ISD was increased to 126 square miles (326 km²), when KISD annexed two small common school districts at the South Mayde and Stockdick communities. Two school buses were purchased, one to bring students in from Waller County and the other from Harris County. A female community member driving her own vehicle picked up six students daily from the Fort Bend County area of the school district.

1934: High school age students from Brookshire began attending Katy High School. A gymnasium was erected (at the site of the current Katy Elementary School cafeteria), so that basketball and volleyball could be played at night under lights, instead of on open courts on Friday afternoons.

1935: A larger wooden school house was completed on Danover Street for African-American students.

1939: The first 6-man football team was established at Katy High School.

1941: 17 seniors graduated.

1943: The first Katy Rodeo was held at Avenue D and 10th Street, northwest of the Katy school buildings.

1945: 11-man football began.

1947: Construction was completed of the new site on Highway 90 in Katy (the building also housed Katy ISD's seventh and eighth graders). High school students from the Addicks Independent School District joined Brookshire High Hchool students attending Katy High.

1951: A new elementary school opened next to Katy High School (which currently serves as the school's West Campus). The 1909 building and the 1927 elementary addition were razed, with only the 1934 "Old Gym" left standing and used as a community center, storage, junior high basketball practice and for the school district offices. The original school bell and the 1927 building plaque were stored at the Old Gym.

1952: A band hall and vocational building were constructed, south of the Katy High School building.

1953: Odessa Kilpatrick School was completed on Danover Street, to serve African-American students in the district. This facility replaced the 1935 wooden school house on the same site. The district began transporting African-American students above the eighth grade to Ralph Bunche School in Brookshire. This arrangement would continue until desegregation was completed.

1955: Katy High School held graduation for 40 seniors.

1959: The movie "Tomboy and the Champ" was filmed in Katy and at the Old Gym.

1960: Students from Brookshire began attending high school in the newly formed Royal Independent School District. A total of 53 graduated from Katy High School.

1961: Voters in Katy ISD and in the Addicks community agreed to consolidation of the defunct Addicks ISD with Katy ISD, and the present boundaries of the district were increased by 55 square miles (142 km²).

1962: During the Cuban Missile Crisis the 1934 Old Gym was used as headquarters for the local civil defense organization.

1964: A new agriculture and rodeo arena was constructed behind Katy High School.

1965: A new Katy Elementary was completed at the site of the district's first permanent school, along with a full-service cafeteria. The building next to Katy High School was renamed Katy Junior High and served sixth through eighth grades. The administration office was located at Katy High School. The staff included the superintendent, business director, and three clerical workers. A bus barn was completed on Franz Road (the current West Transportation Center).

1968: A new Addicks Elementary School replaced the former Addicks ISD building (its name changed to Wolfe Elementary in the 1980s).

1970: Katy ISD completed desegregation of its schools. Odessa Kilpatrick School was used to house Katy Elementary's fifth grade and the district's six graders.

1972: A new administration building was completed on South Stadium Drive.

1974: West Memorial Elementary School was finished in the new West Memorial subdivision.

1976: District's sixth graders moved back to junior high schools when West Memorial Junior High opened.

1977: The capacity of KHS was expanded from 800 to 1600. The Katy ISD school board approved a drill team for the 1977-1978 school year that would be called the "Red Brigade" (students and advisors, prior to the start of the school year, would change the name to "Bengal Brigade").

May, 1977: 195 seniors from Katy High School walked across the stage at Tiger Field.

1978: Zelma Hutsell Elementary, Memorial Parkway Elementary and Bear Creek Elementary Schools opened, fifth graders moved from Kilpatrick School to elementary schools. An alternative education program was set up at Kilpatrick school.

May, 1979: 296 seniors graduated from Katy High School.

1979: James E. Taylor High School opened to 9th and 10th graders.

1980: The bond election passed. Mayde Creek Junior High and Cimarron Elementary schools opened.

1981: Nottingham Country Elementary and Winborn Elementary Schools opened. A new band hall and improvements at Katy Junior High were completed. The last varsity football game was played at Tiger Field.

1982: Katy ISD Stadium opened for varsity football games (its name later changed to Jack Rhodes Memorial Stadium). An alternative education program moved to a new classroom facility next to the stadium (Kilpatrick School used this as a storage facility). Memorial Parkway Junior High and Sundown Elementary School opened.

1983: Mayde Creek Elementary School opened.

1984: Mayde Creek High School opened and a new bus barn was completed north of the school (the current East Transportation Center). The Katy High School tiger-head logo was designed, and replaced the simple letters "K T".

1985: The Katy High School weight room and field house were expanded.

1988: The Old Gym was torn down at Katy Elementary, in anticipation of construction of a new combination gym and cafeteria, as part of the renovated and expanded Katy Elementary.

1988: James E. Taylor High School seniors were the last to graduate from Rhodes Stadium (future KISD graduations ceremonies would be held at the Astro Arena in Houston).

1989: Work was completed at Katy Elementary, adding a new office area and library. Historical items from the original buildings were incorporated with the reconstruction, such as the 1909 school bell placed over the entrance of the school, and the 1927 building plaque displayed in the front entryway.

1989: Golbow Elementary and Pattison Elementary Schools opened.

1991: T.W. McDonald Junior High opened.

1993: Fielder Elementary opened.

1994: The bond election passed.

1995: New Katy Jr. High opened, its former building converted to Katy High School West Campus (whichaccommodated the largest entering freshman class in KHS history). Hayes Elementary School opened. Leonard Merrell was appointed superintendent of schools. A new addition of classrooms was completed on Avenue C at Katy Elementary.

1996: The bond election passed. Beck Junior High opened.

1997: McRoberts Elementary School opened.

May, 1998: 551 seniors graduated from KHS at the Astro Hall in Houston.

1998: Alexander Elementary School opened. A new library and hallway addition was completed between the main and west campus at Katy High School.

May, 1999: The largest graduating class from Katy High School, with 660 seniors, walked across the podium at the Astro Hall.

1999: The bond election passed. Cinco Ranch High School opened (8th graders from Beck Jr. High, temporarily housed at CRHS for one school year due to overcrowding).

2000: McMeans Junior High, Creech Elementary, and Williams Elementary opened.

2001: Cinco Ranch Junior High and Schmalz Elementary School opened.

2002: The bond election passed. Students from West Memorial Elementary temporarily used Cinco Ranch High School due to mold issues at the campus. Performing Arts Center and renovations were completed at Katy High School, James E. Taylor High School, Mayde Creek High School, and Cinco Ranch High School. A third addition at KHS increased its capacity to over 3,000.

2003: Morton Ranch Junior High and a new Odessa Kilpatrick Elementary opened.

2004: Morton Ranch High School, Beckendorff Junior High, Exley Elementary, Franz Elementary, Rhoads Elementary, and Rylander Elementary Schools opened. A new Katy Rodeo arena replaced old facilities south of the administration building and new agriculture barns were finished north of Katy. Both sites were named for former teachers at Katy, L.D. Robinson, and Gerald Young. A Katy ISD Law Enforcement and District Maintenance building opened adjacent to Morton Ranch High School.

2005: Seven Lakes High School opened. The Hutsell Elementary expansion was completed. Merrell Center opened and held high school graduations ceremonies (the first held inside the district since 1988).

2006: On February 13, several parents filed a lawsuit against KISD regarding religion. They accused KISD of religious discrimination in several incidents. KISD has released an official statement.

2006: In May, a bond election failed.

2006: In August, Griffin Elementary School opened.

2006: In November, a bond election passed, providing for construction of three elementary schools and two junior high schools, along with improvements at twenty-four of the district's facilities. Funds were also provided for updated technical equipment, buses, temporary buildings, and future school sites.

2007: Alton Frailey became the superintendent of Katy ISD, upon the retirement of Leonard Merrell. Stephens Elementary and Woodcreek Elementary opened. 1,007 seniors graduate from CRHS. (the largest graduating class in KISD history, as of June 2012)

During the 2004-2005 school year Katy ISD began a new and revolutionary program in the history of the district, with the use of random drug testing for all individuals involved in UIL competitive organizations, student leaders of any official school clubs, and anyone wishing to park on campus. This caused much controversy prior to its instatement. Many parents complained to the school district, citing the new policy as the violation of individual rights. The district responded to this by having every student who wished to participate in the said activities sign a waiver granting the school district to test them randomly. This matter had already been settled by the Supreme Court of the United States as constitutional before KISD chose to implement it.

During the 2007-2008 school year a student who was being questioned by officers about passing counterfeit bills to a local merchant led police to a gun and one ounce of marijuana hidden above ceiling tiles in one of the school's locker rooms. He also led authorities to a home in the area where they found manufacturing equipment to make the counterfeit money. Three other students were investigated for possession of counterfeit money.

2007: On July 5, 2007, the Houston Press posted an article about 12-year-old Shelby Sendelbach, a Mayde Creek Junior High School student who wrote "I Love Alex" on a school gymnasium bench with a marker pen and received three months of disciplinary school assignment as a punishment. The article criticized the district's response and stated that teachers in Japan see the case as the wrong method of punishment. [5] [6] Other news sources from inside and outside the US followed with media coverage, [7] [8][9][10] [11] [12] [13] [14] making the Sendelbach case into a cause célèbre opposing excessive school discipline. ABC News, Good Morning America, [15] and NHK [16] interviewed Sendelbach. On July 18, the Katy ISD school board reversed the punishment of Sendelbach. [17]

2008: Cardiff Junior High, WoodCreek Junior High, Morton Ranch Elementary, Bonnie Holland Elementary, Raines High School (charter school), and Morton Ranch High School 9th Grade Center opened. Additions at Sundown Elementary, Mayde Creek Elementary, and Miller Career & Technology Center were completed.

2009: Stan Stanley Elementary opened.

2010: A $459 million bond referendum passes. James E. Williams Elementary earned the title of BP Science Education Grant Recipient.

2012: Wilson Elementary, Shafer Elementary, Wolman Elementary, a rebuilt Wolfe Elementary, and Seven Lakes Junior High opened. West Memorial Junior High finished remodeling.

2013: Obra D. Tompkins High School opened. Old Katy Elementary (later Katy Junior High and West KHS campus) demolished.

2014: Randolph Elementary and Davidson Elementary opened. $748 million bond referendum (largest in district history) passes.

2015: West Memorial Junior High 7th grader Jordan Wooley brings to the Katy ISD school board about an assignment her teacher supposedly assigned her class. The assignment supposedly involved evaluating the existence of the Christian God as fact, opinion, or general acceptance, but required her to disprove its existence.

2016: Bethke Elementary, Jenks Elementary, and Tays Junior High opened.

2017: Bryant Elementary, Stockdick Junior High, Patricia E. Paetow High School, Legacy Stadium, and Agriculture Science facility open

2018: Elementary School #41 will open in Cross Creek Ranch.

Facilities

High Schools

• Katy High School (Katy) (Est. 1898, present location 1947)
  • 1997-1998 National Blue Ribbon School
• James E. Taylor High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1979)
  • 1994-1996 National Blue Ribbon School
• Mayde Creek High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1984)
  • 1994-1996 National Blue Ribbon School
• Cinco Ranch High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 1999)
  • 2008 National Blue Ribbon School
• Morton Ranch High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 2004)
• Seven Lakes High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2005)
• Obra D. Tompkins High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2013)

Note: In addition, Katy ISD[18] lists under high schools: Arthur Miller Career & Technology Center (MCTC), and Martha Raines High School. See Alternative Education below in this article.

Junior High schools

• Rodger and Ellen Beck Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 1996)
  • 2001-02 National Blue Ribbon School
• Beckendorff Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2004)
• Cardiff Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 2008)
• Cinco Ranch Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2001)
• Katy Junior High School (Katy) (Est. 1965 next to Katy High School, present location 1995)
• Mayde Creek Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1980)
  • 1999-2000 National Blue Ribbon School
• T. H. McDonald Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1991)
• Garland McMeans Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 2000)
• Memorial Parkway Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1982)
  • 1999-2000 National Blue Ribbon School
• Morton Ranch Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 2003)
• Seven Lakes Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2012)
• James and Sharon Tays Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2016)
• West Memorial Junior High School (Unincorporated Harris County) (Est. 1976)
• Woodcreek Junior High School (Unincorporated Fort Bend County) (Est. 2008)

Elementary schools

• Roosevelt Alexander Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 1998)
• Bear Creek Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1978)
  • 1987-88 National Blue Ribbon School
• Catherine Bethke Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2016)
• Cimarron Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1980)
• Sue Creech Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2000)
• Keiko Davidson Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2014)
• Jo Ella Exley Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2004)
• Edna Mae Fielder Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 1993)
  • 1998-99 National Blue Ribbon School
• Franz Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2004)
• Loraine T. Golbow Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1989)
• Michael Griffin Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2006)
• Jeanette Hayes Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1995)
• Bonnie Holland Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2008)
• Zelma Hutsell Elementary School (Katy) (Est. 1978)
  • 2000-01 National Blue Ribbon School
• MayDell Jenks Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2016)
• Katy Elementary School (Katy) (Est. 1898, moved next to Katy High School 1951, present location 1965)
  • 2006 National Blue Ribbon School
• Kilpatrick Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 1952 on Danover Street, closed 1978, present location 2003)
• Robert E. King Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2001)
• Mayde Creek Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1983)
  • National Blue Ribbon School in 1989-90 and 2000-01
• Polly Ann McRoberts Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1997)
• Memorial Parkway Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1978)
  • 1998-99 National Blue Ribbon School
• Morton Ranch Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2008)
• Nottingham Country Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1981)
• Hazel S. Pattison Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1989)
  • 1993-94 National Blue Ribbon School
• James E. Randolph Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2014)
• Rhoads Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2004)
• Rylander Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2004)
• Betty and Jean Schmalz Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2001)
• Fred and Patti Shafer Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2012)
• Stan Stanley Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2009)
• Stephens Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 2007)
• Sundown Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1982)
• West Memorial Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1974)
• James E. Williams Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2000)
• Tom Wilson Elementary School (Uninc. Fort Bend County) (Est. 2012)
• Diane Winborn Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1981)
• Maurice L. Wolfe Elementary School (Uninc. Harris County) (Est. 1961 as Addicks Elementary, current building 1968)
  • 1998-99 National Blue Ribbon School
• Ray and Jamie Wolman Elementary School (Katy) (Est. 2012)
• WoodCreek Elementary School (Katy) (Est. 2007)

Support Facilities

• Administration Building
• Leonard E. Merrell Center
• Rhodes Stadium
• Transportation Center (East) (adjacent to Mayde Creek High School)
• Transportation Center (West) (adjacent to Katy Junior High School)
• Transportation Center (South) (adjacent to Rylander Elementary School)
• Gerald Young Agricultural Science Center
• L. D. Robinson Pavilion & Rodeo Arena
• Katy ISD Law Enforcement Center (adjacent to Morton Ranch High School)
• Katy ISD Storage Annex (Danover Street, former Kilpatrick Elementary)
• Legacy Stadium

Alternative Education Campus

• Arthur Miller Career & Technology Center
• Opportunity Awareness Center
• Martha Raines/School of Choice

Katy ISD has done an extensive study and maintains and updates a District Growth and Facilities Planning Study.[19]

A future High School #8 site is located on 140 acres (0.57 km²) at the southwest corner of Peek Road and Stockdick School Road to relieve Morton Ranch High School and the growth along the Grand Parkway and far north part of the district. Future High School #9 is planned on 123.09 acres (0.4981 km²), purchased in 2006, within Cross Creek Ranch (a 3,000 acre (12 km²) master-planned community east of Fulshear), in the southwest quadrant of the district. [20] [21] [22] [23]

Four additional junior high schools (for a total of 17) and 7 more elementary schools (for a total of 44) are planned until the district is built-out, however, the new school sites are only speculated until land and funding is authorized from bond elections.

Enrollment

1934- 263 students

1954- 615

1961- 727

1971- 1,671

1976- 4,244

1980- 9,762

1981- 10,865

1985- 15,455

1995- 25,336

1996- 26,766

1997- 28,230

1998- 30,126

1999- 32,338

2000- 33,474

2001- 37,195

2002- 39,867

2003- 41,687

2004- 44,483

2005- 47,788

2006- 50,585

2007- 53,634 [24]

2008- 56,862

2009- 59,078

2010- 60,977

2011- 62,030

2012- 65,034

2013- 67,213

2014- 70,063

Demographics

The district population increased from 37,554 in 2001 to over 62,000 in 2011. From 2001 to 2011, the growth of Black and Hispanic students was 10 times that of the growth of White students.

Departments

The Katy ISD Police Department was created in 1989 because the district had jurisdictional issues and low response times from other police agencies.

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